| 2-D modelling |
| 3-D modelling |
| Modelling the transport of radionuclides in the marine environment and associated impacts to humans |
| Assessing the impacts of contaminants in river systems |
| Risk assessment from contamination of land and/or groundwaters |
| IPPC baseline ground and groundwater site investigation |
| Environmental Decision Support and Sustainable Waste Management |
| Simplified regional groundwater elevation modelling based on hydromorphic evaluation |
| Air Quality Assessments for Industry |
| Validation of dispersion models |
| Assessing the environmental impact of disposing of animal carcasses during the outbreak of Foot and Mouth disease |
| Environmental Assessments |
| Assessor Training |
| Legislative support |
| Toxicological services |
| Effluent toxicity testing - interpretation and derivation of Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) |
| External gamma dose rates - temporal and spatial studies |
| Investigation of the effect of industrial discharges on non-human species |
| Particle size distributions of solids |
| Alpha and gamma - ray analysis of environmental samples |
| Biokinetic modelling of radionuclides in marine biota |
| Investigations of 60Co |
| Environmental Litigation |
| |
| |
| 2-D modelling |
| An investigation of the dispersion of pollutants in the vicinity of marine outfalls in complex settings requires the use of 2-D hydro-dynamic models. We have extensive experience of these models, some examples of which are given below: |
| |
- Solway Firth - Although the Solway Firth is a large estuary (it is about the same size as the Thames estuary), it is one of the least industrialised stretches of enclosed water south of Scotland's central belt. This is partly because it is a very difficult place to navigate, with a high tidal range, strong tidal currents and extensive tidal flats. These difficulties also apply to numerical models. Nevertheless, with the co-operation of local industry and regulators, we have produced a 2-D drying banks model of the Firth, which will be available to assist customers in future management decisions.
- Teeside - In contrast to the Solway Firth, Teeside has a large population and the Tees Estuary is one of the most heavily industrialised regions of the UK. The middle reaches of the estuary have been dredged out and, at the estuary mouth, it opens out onto tidal mud and sand flats. The estuary is partially stratified and a plume of brackish water is produced offshore on the ebb tide. Pollutants from the estuary are generally associated with this plume, and its movement has important consequences for the subsequent dispersion of contaminants from the estuary. We have set up a 2-D model of the Tees coast on a 100m grid which has been used to simulate the flow patterns in the estuary along with the dilution, dispersion and interaction of the numerous point discharges along its length.
- Cumbrian coast - The West Cumbrian coast has a large tidal range, relatively small currents and a mix of industrial and domestic discharges. A 2-D modelling investigation into the bacterial levels resulting from the interaction of outfalls was used to identify the main source of bacteria along the foreshore.
- Narrow estuarine models - Estuaries can be very difficult places to model with large tidal ranges, freshwater driven density circulation and high sediment loads. Over the years WSC has developed extensive experience of the Ribble Estuary in Lancashire using narrow estuary models that aim to integrate some of this complexity.
- Estuarine eco-system model - We used an estuarine eco-system model to assess the environmental and public health implications of dredging operations in the Ribble, which demonstrated, both for industry and the general public, that these operations will have no adverse affect.
- VERSE - In addition we are developing VERSE, a vertically stratified 2-D model of the Ribble and its tributary the Douglas, which will predict the dispersion of pollutants through the combined pathways of the water and suspended sediment. The model can 'store' pollutants in the seabed, and this can result in a significant increase in the time it takes for them to flush from the estuary. The first application of VERSE is to predict the dispersion of radionuclides in the Ribble.
|
| |
| back to top |
| |
| 3-D modelling |
| Management of the coastal waters of Europe increasingly requires a holistic approach to the marine eco-system. The energy and nutrients that drive this eco-system come from solar radiation, river outflows and bottom stirring. Modelling of such systems in the coastal zone requires the use of 3-D models that are capable of representing surface layering and coastal density flows. At present, we are developing a 3-D modelling capability to meet these new challenges. |
| |
| Modelling the transport of radionuclides in the marine environment and associated impacts to humans |
| We have developed MEAD to model the transport and dispersion of radionuclides in the Irish Sea. The model simulates time periods up to 100 years as the radionuclides being modelled can stay active in the marine environment for this duration or longer. Radionuclides in the marine environment have very complex behaviour with different nuclides behaving in different ways. Some nuclides, such as 99Tc, stay predominantly dissolved in the seawater and travel relatively quickly whereas others, such as 241Am, strongly bind to sediment and settle onto the seabed near the discharge point. This range of behaviour is a challenge to modellers who must incorporate a wide range of processes to make allowances for it. MEAD has some very detailed process representation regarding the interactions of radionuclides with sediments, including sorption, desorption, deposition and erosion. MEAD predicts the time varying distribution of radionuclides in the Irish Sea on a 2km by 2km grid. The post-processing package, ADEPT, can be used to calculate impacts to marine biota and doses to humans. |
| |
| When looking at radionuclide transport and impacts beyond the Irish Sea, we use the POSEIDON model, developed by CEPN (France). This model allows us to extend our studies to all European seas and is invaluable given the current issues of 99Tc in Norwegian waters and the Arctic and recent OSPAR regulations on radionuclide discharges and their impacts on other European states. |
| |
| Assessing the impacts of contaminants in river systems |
| In conjuction with our estuarine and coastal modelling expertise we can offer a full “source to sea” modelling service to our customers. The combination of skills within the organisation are currently being used to model flow, contaminant transport and potential impacts to humans in a Cumbrian river system. Several discharge points are being considered both above and within the tidal reaches. The particular challenge of this project is the interplay between the contaminant discharges and tidal influence. For discharges in the tidal zone, initial transport of the contaminant can be located in either the upstream or downstream direction depending on the tide and for discharges above the tidal limit the transport time to the sea can be greatly influenced by the tides. |
| |
| The DHI MIKE11 modelling system is suitable for rivers and narrow estuaries. This gives a one-dimensional dynamic representation of the hydrodynamics of water flows and can also include contaminant and sediment transport, flow structures and flooding. |
| |
| back to top |
| |
| Risk assessment from contamination of land and/or groundwaters |
| We integrate groundwater contaminant transport modelling, subsurface geological visualisation techniques and critical group dose assessment methodologies to provide a quantitative assessment of risk to members of the public from the potential or actual contamination of groundwaters. The source of the contamination may be from a landfill site, an industrial complex or a chemical plant. To achieve this, we use a number of in-house modelling tools and a range of proprietary modelling/visualisation packages such as MODFLOW, MT3D, Visual Groundwater, LandSim and the RockWare suite of geoscience modelling packages. |
| |
| This provides site operators and the Environmental Regulators with data that may be used to evaluate the potential impact of a leak both immediately and into the future. This permits decisions to be made on how best to tackle the contamination problem or to determine, if indeed, a significant risk actually exists. But we don’t just stop there. Uniquely, we undertake and apply research into how these data may be used to support environmental decisions, taking into account issues such as public perception, stakeholder dialogue, risk communication and uncertainty. |
| |
| IPPC baseline ground and groundwater site investigation |
| The Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) legislative framework, aims to introduce a more integrated approach to controlling pollution from industrial sources by reducing or, wherever possible, preventing emissions into the air, water and land. We have years of experience with regard to modelling and monitoring different pollutants in each of these environments and as such can assist the operators and regulators of either existing or new IPPC specified installations through the stages of the regulatory process. We provide a full range of services to conduct IPPC baseline site investigations. These services include: planning and negotiating the work programme in collaboration with the client and the Environmental Regulator; undertaking the most appropriate ground investigation survey (using both non-intrusive geophysical techniques and intrusive trial-pit/drilling methods), and; interpreting the geological/ hydrogeological/ geophysical data for the site. Collectively this provides a comprehensive baseline report on the client’s site. |
| |
| Previous experience includes conducting the baseline study of a paperboard factory that requires an IPPC permit. The baseline study is a major component of the regulatory process, which establishes the current condition of a site. This should provide information on the physical attributes and vulnerability of the site as well as providing a reference point for measuring site deterioration. We prepared a Risk Assessment report for the existing paperboard factory, which described the condition of the site and identified pollution risks that were evident from existing procedures and historical records. Based on this report and the requirements of the regulator, we designed a focussed site investigation to further address the issues of concern. The site investigation involved the use of geophysical mapping to target invasive investigations and prevent the need for unnecessary excavation. By focussing the invasive investigation in this way, it is possible to determine the most cost-effective number of monitoring boreholes and the most prudent borehole locations. The boreholes can be used subsequently for regular monitoring of the groundwater to demonstrate compliance with any permit conditions. Both historic and present-day information resulting from any site investigations can be incorporated into a GIS package to assist in the construction of a conceptual model, which can be updated and refined as and when pertinent information arises. |
| |
| back to top |
| |
| Environmental Decision Support and Sustainable Waste Management |
| We are currently working on an Environmental Decision Making (EDM) framework that will allow waste management services to make well informed decisions about selecting between various sustainable waste management options. The result will be an accessible method for selecting the most appropriate and sustainable method for managing different waste types by balancing factors such as scientific and technical advice, economics, public perception and health impact. We aim to deliver such a framework for making objective, transparent decisions regarding the selection of sustainable waste management options. This will be achieved by: |
| |
- Researching current methodologies for decision making (which include both quantified and subjective factors)
- Identifying and testing the appropriateness of these methodologies for this application
- Identifying public opinion issues linked to an acceptance or rejection of particular disposal methods or barriers to its uptake at a local level
|
| |
| Quantifiable scientific, economic and public opinion data will be combined with other constraints in a spatial framework within a GIS system to assist in communicating the results of complex risk-based evaluations, demonstrating improvements in quality of life indicators and assisting forward planning of regional waste management. |
| |
| Simplified regional groundwater elevation modelling based on hydromorphic evaluation |
| Knowledge of the elevation of the groundwater surface (water table) is an important factor in groundwater evaluation for water resource assessment, pollution and contaminant transport issues and related planning and management functions, including risk assessments. Direct measurements of groundwater elevation require suitable boreholes. However, these are expensive to install and monitor properly and there is frequently a lack of suitably detailed data when investigating particular sites or issues. |
| |
| In order to fill in these gaps in data coverage, a method has been developed to predict groundwater elevation in areas where no borehole records are available. The method relies on modeling relationships between groundwater level and topographic, geological and hydrological factors, for which wider data coverage is available. A GIS system is used to manipulate the various data available and to handle and visualise results. At the regional scale this GIS-based system can do a similar job to a simple groundwater model, indeed a simple approach is required considering the resolution of the available data. However, the system can also handle higher resolution data and so readily enables scaling of the study between the regional scale and a local more detailed level. |
| |
| The method has been applied to parts of the West Cumbrian coastal plain underlain by the Sherwood Sandstone aquifer and should be applicable to areas of similar terrain in West Cumbria or elsewhere, underlain by thick permeable media. |
| |
| The methodology is relevant to risk assessment, environmental decision making, pollution evaluation and environmental impact assessment and could be applied to regional environmental planning issues (for example, contaminated land strategies for local authorities) and in catchment scale risk assessment methodologies. It provides a way to get around the problem of sparse data that is often a limiting factor in hydrogeological studies and is applicable in situations where more complex groundwater models are not appropriate. |
| |
| back to top |
| |
| Air Quality Assessments for Industry |
| We have a growing reputation for providing authoritative air quality assessments in support of industrial discharge authorisations under the Radioactive Substances Act, Environmental Protection Act and IPPC regulations. Our modelling capabilities includes: R91-type models, UK-ADMS, PC-CREAM, ISC-AERMOD and Airviro and we provide expert scientific support to the following sectors: |
| |
- Nuclear
- Utilities
- Waste Management
- Chemical
- Manufacturing
- Agriculture
- Defence
|
| |
| Validation of dispersion models |
| Increasingly, the decision to grant or deny a discharge authorisation or planning application is based on the predictions of an air quality model. There is unlikely to be a change from this reliance on models as the IPPC regulations require that the impact of pollutants on the environment, arising from an installation, be assessed in an integrated and holistic manner. However, few, if any, ever ask the question, how accurate are the models? |
| |
| We are tackling this problem. In addition to pushing the full range of dispersion models to the limits to test their performance and idiosyncrasies, uniquely we have undertaken full-scale model validation using extensive field experiments and wind tunnel studies. Working closely with the nuclear industry, and using their discharge points, field validations have been undertaken of the air quality models that are used routinely by industry, regulators and consultants. |
| |
| This work has provided modelling toolkits with which to validate a wide range of models under a variety of meteorological and discharge conditions. It has also demonstrated that model accuracy does not always improve with increasing model complexity and illustrates the need to understand the strengths and weaknesses of models to ensure that they are applied intelligently for clients. |
| |
| back to top |
| |
| Assessing the environmental impact of disposing of animal carcasses during the outbreak of Foot and Mouth disease |
| The recent outbreak of Foot and Mouth disease has affected many parts of the UK but none more so than Cumbria, which has had the highest proportion of infected premises. From the beginning of the outbreak, pyres were used to destroy the animal carcasses however, over time this policy was questioned due to the growing concern about the levels of pollution being emitted from the pyres and their potential impact on human health. Of particular concern were the potential levels of dioxins being emitted from the materials used to construct the pyres as well as from the combustion of the animal carcasses. We were involved in a number of monitoring and modelling studies to assess the impact of pyres on local populations and the environment. |
| |
| One project used a mobile laboratory equipped with monitoring equipment to measure the levels of air pollutants (SO2, NOx, PM10, dioxins etc.) released from a pyre, to inform local authorities whether the concentrations were reaching harmful levels. Once the fires were out, we continued to provide support by measuring dioxins concentrations in agricultural land downwind from the pyres. This work coupled with atmospheric dispersion and foodchain modelling produced a risk assessment of the likely levels of dioxins reaching Man through the foodchain and the subsequent implications of re-stocking farms. Finally, the lifecycle assessment was completed when we were called upon to assess the impact on residents living close to landfill sites due to the disposal of pyre ash. |
| |
| Environmental Assessments |
| Radiological emissions modelling and assessments services also represent a core capability. Our services combine the disciplines of applied biology, atmospheric physics, chemistry, computer modelling, hydrogeology, meteorology, physical oceanography, radiation dosimetry and statistics. |
| |
| We use the latest dispersion models in order to assess the potential impact of radioactive discharges to air, water and land, for the purposes of, dose assessment studies, environmental impact minimisation and risk assessment. This includes the provision of consultation services to industry on changes in environmental assessment methods. |
| |
| Assessor Training |
| We provide technical support for emergency procedures to the nuclear industry, including technical training for emergency assessors in emergency countermeasures and dose assessments. In addition we supply simulated technical information relating to accidental aerial releases for use in emergency exercises. |
| |
| back to top |
| |
| Legislative support |
| We provide a wide range of support to the British nuclear industry. Services include technical editing of annual discharge reports and providing advice on the implications for industry of advances in environmental policy and legislation such as the Water Framework Directive and OSPAR. We also offer technical advice to customers dealing with pressure groups, Government and the Environment Agency. |
| |
| Toxicological services |
| Review of toxicological data for discharged substances is of increasing industrial importance as a result of recent Directives and international policy. We have been active in reviewing toxicological data for a vast array of hazardous substances, to determine the likely impact on both the environment and man. These services enable industry to meet regulatory criteria and improve environmental policy. |
| |
| Effluent toxicity testing - interpretation and derivation of Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) |
| We have considerable experience on the assessment of chemical toxicity and derivation of EQS values. Many of the EQS values derived by our organisation have been accepted as national values. We are also able to advise on the testing of effluent toxicity by accepted methods under the Direct Toxicity Assessment scheme to be implemented by local authorities. Effluent toxicity analysis can be arranged on behalf of clients and analyses interpreted by experienced ecotoxicological staff for the particular discharge regimes under review. |
| |
| This has included recent advances in the toxicity testing of effluents, where we have ensured that the most up-to-date methods are used to the correct standards to establish discharge limits for effluents that will minimise environmental impact. |
| |
| back to top |
| |
| External gamma dose rates - temporal and spatial studies |
| We have the capability to perform external gamma dose rate surveys. In this work we are investigating the temporal and spatial variation of external gamma dose rates along the Cumbrian coastline. This information will be used in conjunction with radionuclide content and particle size distribution of the sediments to improve model predictions relating to external gamma dose rates. Improvement of the model predictions will lead to a more realistic dose assessment of the coastline. |
| |
| Investigation of the effect of industrial discharges on non-human species |
| There is an increasing realisation that environmental monitoring practices need to ensure the protection of the environment as a whole. The most suitable way to see if the environment is being protected is to monitor organisms (sentinel species) that are in direct contact with contaminated materials such as sediment, water and air. We are conducting a 3 year study to assess the level of biological damage, using lobsters and lugworms, observed at selected contaminated marine sites in the UK. Damage is related to three main contributory factors: persistent organic compounds; heavy metals and radionuclides. The Comet Assay, a single cell gel electrophoresis, measures DNA strand breaks in single cells. The SCGE technique can measure the amount of cumulative DNA damage caused by all genotoxic pollutants present in a contaminated environment, irrespective of the type of pollutant (radiation, PCBs etc). |
| |
| Particle size distributions of solids |
| Numerous investigations have been made to determine the particle size distributions of various solid materials using our Malvern laser granulometer. Such investigations have encompassed demands from engineering and water quality disciplines as well as the Foot and Mouth Disease epidemic. The laser granulometer also plays a key role in providing a key facility in various MSc and PhD projects associated with Westlakes. |
| |
| Alpha and gamma - ray analysis of environmental samples |
| We possess the capability to analyse a variety of environmental matrices (soil, sediment, seafood, terrestrial food, seawater, suspended particulates, air particulates, and biota) for a wide range of radionuclides. Recent and current work encompasses diverse topics such as measuring 99Tc in Cumbrian coastal sediments, 137Cs in Hong Kong soils, 210Po and 210Pb in worms and woodlice, U and Th in estuarine samples and Pu and Am in Irish Sea sediments. All of these projects improve our understanding of the behaviour of these radionuclides in the environment. |
| |
| back to top |
| |
| Biokinetic modelling of radionuclides in marine biota |
| Over the last 18 months, biokinetic modelling has been developed as a capability. Current experience is based on the behaviour of 99Tc and 129I in lobsters and winkles. Radiological assessment models possess simplified transfer pathways relating to the exposure of man via the seafood pathway. However, this work focuses more on the biota, looking at uptake and depuration kinetics as well as external influences on the exposure of the biota to radionuclides (seawater, suspended sediment, food concentrations). This work is consistent with other themes present in the group such as: the Investigation of the effect of industrial discharges on non-human species; Natural radionuclides in a terrestrial ecosystem; where the assessment of the impact of industrial discharges to the environment are used to consider the impact on biota rather than the impact on man alone. |
| |
| Investigations of 60Co |
| The 5.27-year half-life of the gamma-emitting radionuclide 60Co has been used to reconstruct the historical discharges of 60Co through the generation of depth profiles in saltmarsh and inter-tidal sediments. Transfer rates of the nuclide to various parts of the eastern Irish Sea have also been calculated. |
| |
| Environmental Litigation |
| We have considerable experience in producing assessments and expert advice for cases of individuals claiming ill health as a result of occupational exposure to substances in their workplace, or exposure in the environment to industrial emissions. To this effect, we are expert in carrying out data mining on occupational exposure records, discharge and environmental monitoring records, employment records, and other related material. |
| |
| We have produced coherent, verifiable and quality assured databases from historical paper records, in which the format, units of recording, and content often change over time. We have successfully produced models that recreate the levels of exposure experienced by individual occupationally exposed workers or individual residents exposed to industrial emissions. Using these models, and our knowledge of occupational and environmental epidemiology, we can estimate the risks associated with these exposures, assisting our clients in deciding whether, on the balance of probabilities, ill health effects were attributable to these exposures or to other causes. We also provide expert witness services to present and interpret this information scientifically in a court of law, or for a panel dealing with compensation claims. |
| |
| We have successfully dealt with numerous cases of this nature, providing our clients with the highest level of professional integrity, objectivity and confidentiality whilst conducting these studies. |
| |
| back to top |
